MglBAC additionally allows bacteria to utilize glucose in PF-01367338 solubility dmso micromolar concentrations. It is the most highly expressed transporter under glucose limitation [11] due to its high affinity for glucose [12], but PTS also transports glucose with similar micromolar

affinity [12, 17, 18]. Regarding dependence of activity of glucose transporters on bacterial growth rate, at intermediate growth rates Mgl has the leading role in glucose Stem Cells inhibitor uptake, although PtsG is active as well [15]. Regulation of expression and activity of transporters PtsG/Crr and MglBAC is substantially different. Different groups of sigma factors, activators and repressors are responsible for regulation of their transcription, including a small RNA that additionally controls degradation of the ptsG transcript [12, 14, 19]. Furthermore, PtsG/Crr Small Molecule Compound Library takes up and concomitantly phosphorylates glucose in an ATP-independent fashion, whereas glucose transported via ATP-dependent uptake system MglBAC is subsequently phosphorylated by a different enzyme [12]. Glucose is metabolized via central metabolism, which is the source of energy and biomass building blocks. First, the glycolytic enzymes break down glucose to pyruvate, which is then further

metabolized to acetyl-CoA that can enter the citric acid cycle [20]. If glucose is present in the environment as a sole carbon source, cells growing at a high rate of glucose consumption perform a fast metabolism known as overflow metabolism [21]. The cells rapidly degrade glucose to acetyl-CoA and further to acetate, and ultimately excrete acetate [22]. Two different pathways can catalyze the excretion of acetate: Pta-AckA (phosphate acetyltransferase – acetate kinase) during the exponential phase or PoxB (pyruvate oxidase) in the stationary phase [23, 24]. Furthermore, E. coli also has the ability to grow on acetate as a sole carbon source [21]. Acetate can freely penetrate the cell membrane

[21] but it also has its dedicated uptake system ActP (acetate permease) that is co-transcribed with acs encoding for acetyl-CoA synthetase [25]. Bacteria utilize acetate by using the low affinity Pta-AckA pathway when acetate is present in high concentrations in the millimolar range. Acetyl-CoA synthetase Acs takes over acetate uptake at low concentrations of acetate Afatinib molecular weight in the micromolar range [21, 26]. However, the growth rate when growing solely on acetate is low: for example, the maximal growth rate on acetate is almost five times lower than on a concentration of glucose with the equivalent number of carbon atoms [27]. In batch cultures with glucose as the sole provided carbon source, E. coli populations start to grow on the excreted acetate when glucose is depleted [21]. As mentioned above, acetate appears as an intermediate in reactions of glucose metabolism, and it can as well serve as a carbon source.